Anne Taylor Programming & Design Of  Schools Introduction & Overview Curriculum  & Learning  Process Case Studies 1 - 8 Case Studies 9 - 17 Patterns for Reform References Bibliography Appendix Sponsors: C/S Group The global innovator in architectural specialty products. Home

"The programming ideas described here engage stakeholders in an elongated process of thinking about the total community as a learning environment.". 

"Physical needs are met by careful attention to safety and codes, for example, while psychological or spiritual/aesthetic needs might be answered by providing spaces for students to display their own work."

"Students need public, social gathering spaces for developing interpersonal skills and a sense of community, but at the same time they also need private, quiet places  (intrapersonal)  to reflect on learning."

Curriculum & Learning Process

       School Zone process not only serves in a programming capacity as outlined above.  It also acts as a learning tool for students by clarifying architectural process and focusing awareness on the environment.  Just as architects learn to view spaces in terms of educational goals, students learn to look to architecture and design as a source of knowledge and a way to study concepts across all subject matter areas.  The architecture of a building, a doorway or an arch, for instance, can teach much about descriptive geometry while at the same time demonstrating principles of force, load, tension, and compression from physics.  Geometry is used to read the building shape, while physics helps the student to understand its structural elements.  Geometry and structure of the arch merge into artistic/aesthetic style as students construct arches, or into social studies as students learn about ancient Rome and the Aqueduct.   Buildings begin to take on a wide range of associations and meanings for the occupant instead of remaining unnoticed, passive volumes of space.  

A brief description of the components of the School Zone model follows. 

Context
     Context is the environment in which we learn.  In educational terms, it is helpful to view context as Systems Thinking, Ecoliteracy and Interdisciplinarity.  Schools cannot and should not  be separated from the context of local community during both the programming and the design process. 
     Systems thinking means seeing the world in terms of connections, relationships, and interdependencies.  For educators this means moving from linear to non-linear thinking, from what to learn to how to learn, and from analyzing parts to synthesizing wholes.  Classrooms become student-centered, flexible, project-based studios rather than teacher-centered, rigid grids modeled on factories.  Systems thinking is integrated thinking across disciplines.
     Ecological thinking is also systems oriented.  We are physical beings who live in physical space, and, as such, we should be attuned to the rhythms of life on earth, or “ecoliterate.”   The Principles of Ecology as adapted from the work of author Fritjof Capra at the Center for Ecoliteracy, Berkeley, CA, form the basis for this understanding of place:

(Capra, 1996  [also see Center for Ecoliteracy]).

     Ecoliteracy means understanding the role of humans on this earth as a part of, not apart from, earth systems, and creating spaces that reflect an awareness of, and respect for, our surroundings
      Interdisciplinary and theme-based education derive their structure from both systems thinking and Ecoliteracy.  Overarching themes like “change” or  “patterns”  or “systems”  can be used to help students make connections across subject matter disciplines and to encourage in-depth learning  (Kaplan & Gould, 1996). 
      Finally, an essential element of context is community.  School Zone actively seeks community involvement and collaboration before new structures are built or old ones are renovated.  The programming ideas described here engage stakeholders in an elongated process of thinking about the total community as a learning environment.  Facilitators from schools, school consultants, city planners, and/or architectural firms may all be called upon to initiate multiple strategies for data collection from the community.  The process of data collection may follow these “user-friendly”  steps for participatory planning:

• Participants relate stories about most potent learning experiences, both negative and  positive.

• Participants analyze where they learn.  They look into joint use and co-location of facilities in the community.

• Planning committees are formed.  Stakeholders take a Myer-Briggs test to determine talents, strengths and interests, and to which committee they should be assigned.

• A logo is designed for the project in order to give all participants a visual symbol of the joint planning process and a collective visual image that represents group goals.

• Treasure cards are distributed to find out what the community assets are.  These cards are questionnaires in both English and Spanish about local resources which can be filled out and returned to the school as a reference of community mentors, services, supplies, and businesses.

• Data is collected through student preference surveys, compiled, and presented to community members  (work may be done by students).

• Study groups are formed to investigate communications, socioeconomic factors, government, educational criteria, and facilities infrastructure.

• Groups draw, dream, and articulate preferences and findings throughout the process.

• A draft of the recommendations is made and reviewed.

• A town hall meeting is held to get feedback on the final report and strategies for action on the plan are devised  (Bingler, 2000;  Concordia, Inc., Architects & Anne Taylor Associates, 1996, 1998).

       During and after a master plan is in place, School Zone continues to provide architecture and design workshops for adults and children in which learners investigate the built, natural, and cultural environment in order to fully appreciate the community in which they live.  The context for learning includes not only the school and school grounds or the site to be developed, but extends into the community and beyond.

Content
      Content is defined as what is to be learned, and is expressed in terms of integrated subject matter concepts, across disciplines.  The importance of concepts is that they are universal and represent in ideational form the material world and our surroundings.  Concepts are extracted from standards set by school districts or by national groups such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science, which promotes science literacy, including a benchmark or set of concept goals entitled,  “The Designed World”  (1993). 
      The following list of concepts  (Table 2, below)  is derived in part from California State Standards for grades K - 8  (State of California State Board of Education, 1999).  It is not exhaustive, but can be used to link curriculum to design determinants by architects creating learning environments.

Table 2:  Curriculum Concepts

     Once the school curriculum concepts are identified and a program is set, architects can begin the work of establishing design determinants or elements.  Examples of design elements include floors, ceilings, walls, lighting, ambiance, color, graphics, storage, furniture, heating, hazards, windows, handicapped access, equipment, etc.  Each architectural element is fully articulated for each activity setting, and an educational benefit is described for that element.  For example, architects and educators working together might delineate how careful attention to signage selection for the school entryway and office area will benefit student vocabulary development, reading comprehension, graphics awareness, provide a sense of school identity, and emphasize multi-lingual learning.  Large tables on wheels rather than individual desks in classrooms will provide deployable, horizontal working surfaces for student design projects. Tiling in the cafeteria might be designed to display mathematical patterns and sequences.  Schools that eliminate lockers can transform hallways into cultural museums.  The possibilities are endlessly rich.
     Concepts also play another role in programming.  They are used by architects as a basis for asking the client questions about space needs.  As architects learn about educational content, students explore architectural concepts used for planning and for design.  Students learn that programming concepts differ from design concepts.  Programming is abstract and analyticall and happens first, while design concepts are concrete, physical and architectural  (Peña,1987). Peña lists common programming concepts ranging from priority to hierarchy, character, density, grouping, energy conservation, access, function, orientation, safety, cost control, schedule, and safety.  Such planning concepts, as well as physical, designed elements, usually fall into three categories:  basic needs of health and safety, functional needs, and psychological and aesthetic needs  (Preiser & Taylor, 1983).  

Learning Processes
     Learning processes are how we learn--by using multiple senses, moving, manipulating objects, observing, sorting and comparing, creative problem solving using our many intelligences, reflecting, documenting experiences, and valuing.  The whole learner is reached across a continuum of body, mind, and spirit, as shown in Table 3.

Table 3:  Developmental Rights Across Body, Mind and Spirit

     Note.  The above table is presented in linear form for purposes of clarity, however, learning across body, mind, and spirit occurs simultaneously, and different processes influence each other during the entire learning experience  (The American Institute of Architects & School Zone Institute, 1987).
     There is a parallel correspondence between the developmental rights of body, mind, and spirit described in Table 3, and the architect’s concern with “habitability” or health and safety, function and tasks, and aesthetics.  Physical needs are met by careful attention to safety and codes, for example, while psychological or spiritual/aesthetic needs might be answered by providing spaces for students to display their own work. Habitability is an indication of environmental quality as perceived by the occupants of buildings.
     The goal of architectural design is to achieve habitability for the client, which means being finely tuned to the needs of the client.  As part of the communication process between student or client needs and architects, the School Zone process uses a “Habitability Framework” to translate developmental rights of body, mind, and spirit into concrete architectural support systems.  The framework is based on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which defines a spectrum of needs ranging from the physiological to self actualization  (Preiser & Taylor, 1983).  This ensures that client needs are fully addressed in the architecture, and that the architecture becomes an active learning tool.
     In addition to the above developmental rights, architects, educators, and communities may study and appreciate diversity of learning processes through Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences  (1983).  Gardner has outlined several ways of learning or “intelligences”  which can inform educators as to individual student needs and can also direct designers to create responsive environments which will stimulate learners of all kinds:

• verbal/linguistic

• logical/mathematical

• visual/spatial

• musical/rhythmic

• bodily/kinesthetic

• interpersonal

• intrapersonal

• naturalistic.

     Architects translate the intelligences into different types of spaces for learning.  For example, students need public, social gathering spaces for developing interpersonal skills and a sense of community, but at the same time they also need private, quiet places  (intrapersonal)  to reflect on learning.  Knowledge of various learning processes helps architects expand the functionality of schools.  This same checklist of developmental rights and multiple intelligences easily could help round out facility planning at the community level, also. 
     The School Zone Design Process is flexible and adaptable.  It is important to enter into a cooperative effort with an open mind and a tolerance for ambiguity.  The process offers both schools and architectural firms ways to examine curriculum, developmental rights, and the instructional delivery system before designing learning environments.  Articulating programming needs also provides a basis for evaluating a project after completion.  As a model, School Zone methods demonstrate synthesis, integrated thinking, communication skills, and a deep respect for young learners who are participants in the design process.  These attitudes are also reflected in case studies outlined next.

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