References, Bibliography &Appendix
jump to bibliography |  jump to appendix (includes suggestions for research)

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).  (1993).  Benchmarks for Science Literacy.  New York:  AAAS. 

Abel, David  (1999).  What if...New schools, Better neighborhoods, more livable communities.  San Francisco:  Irvine and Getty Foundation. 

American Institute of Architects & School Zone Institute  (1987).  Learning by design, the environmental education program of the American Institute of Architects  [curriculum poster series for elementary students].  Washington, D.C.:  The American Institute of Architects and School Zone Institute, Albuquerque, NM.

Anne Taylor Associates & The Institute for Environmental Education, University of New Mexico  (2000).  Around the world in Japan.  [in-house newsletter about Japanese experience].Albuquerque, NM:  © Anne Taylor Associates.

Barker, R., & Gump, P.V.  (1964).  Big school, small school.  Palo Alto, CA:  Stanford University Press.

Bingler, Steven  (2000).  Los Angeles County Schools Project.  Unpublished manuscript in progress.  [See also, Concordia, Inc.]

Brügge, Steve, & Johnson, M. Kim  (2000, August 13).  Much of N.M. schools’ work merits ‘A.’  The Albuquerque Journal, p. B3.

Caine, Renate Numella, & Cane, Geoffrey  (1991).  Making connections, Teaching and the human brain.  Alexandria, VA:  Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).

Capra, Fritjof  (1996).  The web of life.  New York:  Anchor Books.  [Principles of ecology are also distributed through publications of The Center for Ecoliteracy, P.O. Box 9066, Berkeley, CA  94709.]

Cizek, Gregory J.  (1999, June).  Give us this day our daily dread:  Manufacturing crises in education.  Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 80, No. 10, 737-743.

Class, Ken, Enggass, Katherine, Martin, Pam, & Taylor, Anne (2000).  Developing an eco-historical sense of place, A self-organizing system for environmental learning on school sites.  Unpublished manuscript written as part of a grant from the Center for Ecoliteracy, Berkeley, CA.

Concordia, Inc., Architects, & Anne Taylor Associates  (1996).  Project build.  Unpublished architectural program at Western Placer Unified School District, CA.

Concordia, Inc., Architects, & Anne Taylor Associates  (1998).  Hayward master plan.  Unpublished architectural program for Hayward Unified School District, CA.

Concordia, Inc., Architects, Anne Taylor Associates, Wolff Lang Christopher, Architects  (1994).  Site analysis workbook.   Unpublished book used at Brookside Elementary School.

Concordia, Inc., Architects, & Concordia Associates Enggass, Katherine, Taylor, Anne   (1999).  Sourcebook to the Concordia early learning environment, Creative interaction and communication through perception, knowledge and imagination.  Unpublished manuscript  [Set of volumes includes a basic teacher guide and curriculum guide in use at Keystone Learning Center in Montgomery, Alabama]. 

Council of Educational Facility Planners International  (CEFPI) (2000). Membership services [promotional pamphlet].  Scottsdale, AZ:  CEFPI.  [More information available through:  www.cefpi.org ].

Davis, Meredith, Hawley, Peter, McMullan, Bernard & Spilka, Gertrude  (1997).  Design as a catalyst for learning.  Alexandria, VA:  Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development  (ASCD).

Design Share (2000).  National design principles--awards criteria.  [On line].  Available through:  http://www.designshare.com/Awards/Criteria_2000.htm 

Dewey, John  (1916).  Democracy and education:  An introduction to the philosophy of education.  New York:  Macmillan.

Edwards, Carolyn, Forman, George, Gandini, Leila  (Eds.).  (1996).  The hundred languages of children.  New Jersey:  Ablex Publishing Corp.  [work and philosophy of Reggio Emilia schools in Italy]

Fowler, Jr., W. J.  (1992).  What do we know about school size?  What should we know?  Washington, D.C.:  United States Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.

Garbarino, J.  (1980).  Some thoughts on school size and its effects on adolescent development.  Journal of Youth and Adolescence 9(1), 19-31.

Gardner, Howard  (1983).  Frames of mind, The theory of multiple intelligences.  New York:  Basic Books, Inc., Publishers.

Glass, G. V., Cahen, L. S., Smith, M. L., & Filby, N. N.  (1982).  School class size:  Research and policy.  Beverly Hills, CA:  Sage.

Institute for Environmental Education  (IEE). (2000).  Rio Grande Educational Collaborative Report.  Unpublished manuscript in progress.  Albuquerque, NM:  University of New Mexico.

Kaplan, Sandra N. & Gould, Bette  (1996).  Systems, A thematic interdisciplinary unit.  Calabasas, CA:  Educator to Educator, Inc.

Lincoln Unified School District  (1994).  They really listen to us.  [Unpublished, district-produced videotape].  Stockton, CA.

Marshall, Alison, Ph.D., Taylor, Anne, Ph.D., & Vlastos, George  (1991).  Architecture and children teachers guide.  Seattle, WA:  Architecture and Children Institute, © School Zone Institute.

Maxwell, Lorraine E., Ph.D., with the Council of Educational Facility Planners International  (CEFPI).  (1999).  School building renovation and student performance:  One district’s experience.  Scottsdale, AZ:  CEFPI.

McDonough, William  (1999, January).  Adam Joseph leaves center for environmental studies, Oberlin College.  Interiors, 110-111.

New Schools Better Neighborhoods (NSBN).  (2000).  [On line newsletter]  Available through www.nsbn.org  

Orr, David W.  (1992).  Ecological literacy--Education and the transition to a post modern world.  Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Peña, William, with  Parshall, Steven, & Kelly, Kevin  (1987).  Problem seeking, An architectural programming primer  (3rd ed.).  Washington, D.C.:  CRSS, Inc. and AIA Press.

Pierce, Neal  (1999).  New schools, Dinosaurs on opening day.  The Washington Post.

Sanger Unified School District, & Anne Taylor Associates  (2000a).  Developing Learning Landscapes at Elementary Schools  [unpublished guidebook used at local elementary schools].  Sanger, CA:  © Sanger Unified School District & Anne Taylor Associates.

Sanger Unified School District, & Anne Taylor Associates  (2000b).  New Explorers’ Curriculum.  Unpublished environmental and design curriculum manuscript under development.

Schlechty, Phillip C. (1997).  Inventing better schools, An action plan for educational reform.  San Francisco:  Jossey-Bass Publishers.

School Construction News  (2000).  [On line web site for current articles about the latest in school construction.] Available through:  www.designshare.com

School Zone Institute, & Taylor, Anne  (1992).  Trout lake.  Unpublished manuscript. State of California State Board of Education, (1999).  Content standards, pre publication version.  Sacramento, CA:  CA State Board of Education.  [Also available through: www.cde.ca.gov\board\board.html ]

Sternberg, Robert J.  (1985).  Beyond IQ:  A triarchic theory of human intelligence.  New York:  Cambridge University Press.

Sternberg, Robert J.  (1998).  Principles of teaching for successful intelligence.  Educational Psychologist, 33, 2/3, 65-73.

Sylvester, Paul Skilton  (1994, Fall).  Elementary school curricula and urban transformation.  Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 4, No. 3, 309-331.  [The article also appears in a collection of Harvard Educational Review articles entitled, “Improving Schools from Within--Creating Successful Classrooms,”  1994, pp. 57-79.]

Tapscott, Don  (1998).  Growing up digital, The rise of the net generation.  New York:  McGraw-Hill.

Taylor, Anne, Dunbar, Terry, Patel, Swati & Lange, Pat  (1998).  The ecoliteracy of learning landscapes for the East Haven School District.  Unpublished manuscript for the East Haven School District, Connecticut.  Albuquerque, NM:  School Zone Institute.

Taylor, Anne & Vlastos, George  (1983).  School zone, Learning environments for children.  Corrales, NM:  School Zone, Inc.

Taylor, Anne & Vlastos, George, with Creative Learning Systems (CLS).  (1998).  Cybervillage.  [a middle school curriculum based on CLS technology labs].  Unpublished manuscript.

Throne, Jeanette  (1994, Summer).  Living with the pendulum:  The complex world of teaching.  Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 64, No. 2, 195-208.  [The article also appears in a collection of Harvard Educational Review articles entitled, “Improving Schools from Within--Creating Successful Classrooms,”  1994, pp. 21-34.]

United States Department of Education  (1998).  A citizen’s action guide, National symposium on school design:  Schools as centers of community.  Washington, D.C.:  United States Department of Education.  [Also available on line through:  www.ed.gov/inits/construction/ctty-centers.htm]

Wolff Lang Christopher, Architects, Bingler, Steven with Concordia, Inc., Architects, Sherk, Bonnie, & Anne Taylor Associates  (1994).  Users’ guide, west campus Lincoln High School.  Draft manuscript and unpublished architectural program for use at Lincoln High School, Stockton, CA.

Selected Bibliography
     Note:  These selections for further reading underline the philosophy of this paper in that they demonstrate accessibility to a wide reading public, integrated thinking and the combination of several schools of thought, and careful attention to the built, natural, and cultural environment.

Ching, Francis D. K.  (1996).  Architecture, Form, space and order  (2nd Ed.).  New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.  Ching’s architectural drawings illustrate how fundamental elements and principles of architecture and design manifest themselves in the world around us.

Gelb, Michael J.  (1998).  How to think like Leonardo da Vinci, Seven steps to genius every day.  New York:  Dell Publishing.  Gelb dissects Leonardo’s genius and offers activities and discussions to enliven the senses and reawaken creativity.  The book includes some simple art experiences based in part on Betty Edwards’s “Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain,”  an enlightening how-to drawing course.

Lucas, George (1997).  William Snider, (Ed.), Learn and live.  San Rafael:  The George Lucas Foundation.  Lucas is a filmmaker who is interested in promoting excellence in education.  Multiple authors address topics such as learning, the role of the teacher, involving families in education, business partnerships, reinventing schools, buildings that teach, and technology and electronic resources.  A videotape is included with the book.

Meek, Anne  (Ed.).  (1995).  Designing places for learning.  Alexandria, VA:  Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD), and the Council for Educational Facility Planners International  (CEPFI).  Multiple views on school design for the twenty-first century are presented in this volume.  Topics include systemic school reform, new design patterns for schools, place as a form of knowledge, the importance of schools as place, and more. 

Moore, Gary T., & Lackney, Jeffery (1996).  Educational facilities for the twenty-first century:  Research analysis and design patterns.  Milwaukee:  University of Wisconsin, Center for Architecture and Urban Planning.  This resource is a summary of recent research projects on the effects of environments on learning.

Orr, David W.  (1994).  Earth in mind, On education, environment and the human prospect.  Washington D. C. and Covelo, CA:  Island Press.  In addition to the Orr book cited in the reference section, this book is about rethinking education.  Pertinent to this paper is a chapter on architecture as pedagogy. 

Schneider, Michael S.  (1994).  A beginner’s guide to constructing the universe, The mathematical archetypes of nature, art, and science, A voyage from 1 to 10.  New York:  Harper Perennial.  Schneider gives us an integrated approach to thinking about numbers and patterns in the natural,  built, and cultural environment.  The book includes a series of geometric drawing exercises which allow the reader to experience the development of universal principles, while at the same time investigating form in the world around us.

Appendix

RESEARCH QUESTIONS FOR THE FUTURE
      It should be immediately apparent from the numerous cases outlined in this paper that planning for school facilities in the future cannot exist without community input and support.  We should add to this mix that universities and colleges must also provide research and course work in the area of public school design.  Students in architecture and planning programs need to understand educational goals and early childhood.  The reverse is true as well.  Those wishing to become teachers must learn how to express themselves visually and must become sensitive to the impact of the built, natural, and cultural environment on learning.  To encourage such understanding, the Appendix offers a sample list of research questions for further study based on the concerns of this paper.  These may be studied by academics and interested citizens alike.

How do students themselves assess their current learning environments?
      Using the Taylor Preference Interview (©Taylor & Vlastos) as a model, research what K - 12 students like and dislike about their present schools.  Compile and analyze data from the students, who are, in fact, the primary clients of the school system.  What are the most and least liked areas of concern?  What categories can be derived from student choices?  What do students dream about having as part of their learning environments?  Use frequency counts to determine priorities and student values or set up a web site to gather information.   Share data in community venues and during planning stages for renovation and building of new schools.

What design ideas come from students regarding the design of new schools?
      Do we listen to our children about the design of new schools?  How would the students themselves solve some of the problems currently found in the schools?  How does designing a school relate to subject matter disciplines:  math, science, language arts, social studies, health, and the arts?  What projects could engage students in these questions?  Next, apply these same questions to community.  What treasures are out there that could be used by the schools to make learning meaningful?

If the curriculum and the developmental needs of students are used as design determinants for new learning environments, what will schools and learning environments look like?
      How will we synthesize the knowledge of architects with the expertise of educators and ecologists?  Identify elements of the curriculum and the developmental rights of students.  Link these elements to architectural design considerations.  Next, research and create designs for learning environments that act less as passive space and more as learning tools or three-dimensional textbooks.   Observe and compare student responses to traditional versus innovative, active learning environments.  Develop criteria that will be of value to both architects and the community when designing schools.

How will we research the impact of newly created learning environments?
      Design experimental and control group research to track how new learning environments affect:

• concept development in young children
• language and literacy
• creativity
• learning of basic subject matter content
• learning of basic skills
• the ability to make critical aesthetic judgments.

This research could be done so that each student acts as his own control and the research methodology uses a trend analysis format for each variable.

How can the American classroom be reconfigured to become a creative problem-solving studio?
      Investigate workplace and studio environments and compile data on:

• traits shared by most of these environments
• how space is used  (form and function)
• types of furniture and equipment used
• storage
• display and communication
• technology
• specialized spaces and their qualities.

       Apply research findings to the classroom.  What items do we need to add to the learning environment?  What do we need to take away?  How can we link the education of our students to the real world?  Use ideas and systems from business, landscapers, laboratories, museums, NASA, foreign countries, etc., to study how space use could be transferred to the American school.

How can playgrounds be transformed into learning landscapes?
      Taylor is working on this question through projects at several schools in California in which teachers, students, administrators, and community become engaged in site analysis and landscape design of school grounds.  She will train teachers to use these learning landscapes as teaching tools for ecology, science, math, language arts, social studies, the arts, health, and stewardship.

How can teachers and their students be trained to better display visual stimuli in order to communicate with the community and each other more effectively?
     Develop a professional training program which uses community resources and local museums to study the art of graphic design and display.  Investigate:

• visual/spatial aesthetics
• techniques for creating and mounting displays
• physical set-up
• clarity and selectivity
• purposes of different types of displays
• use of technology
• self expression and using student work  (versus prefab or cartoon decorations).

How might the philosophy of Reggio Emilia (Italy) preschools be extended into learning of upper grade students?
      Study and visit Reggio Emilia schools  (Edwards, Forman & Gandini, 1996), and visualize how such an approach might be employed in this country.  What changes in attitude would have to be made?  How might Reggio respect for the image of the child as strong and competent be incorporated into learning at all ages?

How might viewing the teacher as facilitator, rather than as instructor, change classroom set-up and traffic patterns throughout a school?
      In Japan, some schools require that students remain in one place, while teachers circulate throughout a school.   Students take greater charge of their learning environment, from preparing the classroom for different teachers and activities, to cleaning the playground.  Perhaps learning environments should be as adaptable as theatrical set designs.  What would happen if student were given permanent work stations and teachers moved to instructional areas to offer support?  What new designs and attitudes would be needed?  How might patterns within the classroom itself change if teachers were to assume a different role?  How does environment affect how students view themselves as learners?  Does student stewardship lessen vandalism?  This study could involve schematic drawing techniques and mapping of traditional and non-traditional classroom use by students as part of the data collection process.

What protocols can we develop for designing schools as community centers? 
       What systems can we set in place for the co-location of facilities and other amenities which can be used by the community  (e.g.,  child care centers, museums, libraries, social services, health services, swimming pools, parks, and recreation).  Will co-location of facilities lighten or increase the burden on today’s teachers?  What communication technology might enable services to avoid duplication of effort?  Where does culture fit in?  In many ways, schools already provide centralized services for students and community.  How can these efforts be better coordinated?  What are the advantages and disadvantages of establishing schools as community centers?

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